Biochemistry D1. : Analyse how the structure and functions of these biological compounds relate to their roles in cells in terms of: Energy storage, Enzyme function and mechanisms of enzyme action, Cell membrane structure

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Just leaving this here.

The structure and functions of these biological compounds relate to the roles of energy storage, enzyme function and cell membrane within these cells. These roles are vital within animal cells energy storage.

The main energy storage compounds are starch in plants and glycogen in animals. Energy storage is essential for animals as they need energy as a reserve. There are two hormones within the body that are responsible for the maintenance of glucose concentration levels. These are insulin and glucagon. Insulin is released when the blood sugar levels are too high, in response to this the transport of glucose across the cell membrane is increased in order for it to enter the cells. It then becomes metabolised. Glucagon happens when blood sugar levels drops too low. Within glucose are atoms, the structure of these atoms are in a covalent bond (therefore has a strong structure). When these covalent bonds are broken, this results in a huge amount of energy being released. This explains why it is a good source of energy as these bonds are strong. The structure of glycogen is known for being broken down easily and converted to glucose. This is a good source of energy.
Starch is useful as an energy storage compound within plants because of many factors such as they do not affect the water concentration inside cells and they do not move away from the storage areas in the plant. starch can be converted into other substances in plants. For example, cellulose for cell walls and proteins for growth and repair. Starch also enables a large amount of energy to be stored in a small space. Being not very soluble in water is useful for a storage compound.

Each protein has a unique tertiary structure, this allows for its own functions and properties. Below is a diagram showing this tertiary protein structure.  (insert image of tertiary protein structure). 

These are held together by bonds which are known as hydrogen and ionic between the ‘R’ groups on adjacent chains. Enzymes are only able to function a narrow range of temperatures and pH levels due to the hydrogen bonds. This is because the hydrogen bonds are holding the structure together. The amino acids consist of proteins; this would mean they have a basic structure. These have amino groups, carboxyl acid group and a hydrogen atom. The 4th bond to the ‘alpha’ carbon links the amino acid side of the chain. This is marked as ‘R’. The 3D shape these bonds maintain is high in numbers, however it is weak. The 3D structure of enzymes form pockets and protrusion that can hold and fit into their substrate molecules. The shape of these structures is important being a factor in the specificity of the enzyme. The binding of the substrate to the enzyme also changes the shape of the enzyme is many cases. This change in shape is essential for catalysing the product formation. This means these bonds are easily broken down resulting in the enzyme to lose its shape. This process is known as ‘enzyme denaturation’. This explains why enzymes are only active over certain range in temperature and pH.

Below shows the enzyme substrate complex process: (insert image).

Lock and Key theory:
⦁ Enzymes Are Locks
Enzymes work like a lock in the chemical reaction process that's necessary to maintain life. Each enzyme can attract its specific substrate and accelerate the chemical reaction that must occur in the appropriate time span.
⦁ Enzymes Sites Are Keyholes
The enzyme sites work like the keyhole in a lock. Like the lock on a door, only certain keys will fit in the keyholes, and perhaps only one key will open the lock. Put the wrong key into the keyhole, and you can prevent the correct key from unlocking the door.
⦁ Substrates Are Keys
Each enzyme will only respond to one or two substrates, which work like keys for the enzyme lock. The molecular structure of the substrate must correspond in size and shape to the receptor site on the enzyme to produce the desired chemical response. When the enzyme locates its appropriate substrate, the substrate enters the receptor site and both the enzyme and substrate transform to create a complete union so the chemical reaction can occur.



Below shows the structure of enzymes in relation to the enzyme denaturation process. (insert image).

The cell membranes structure is influenced by phospholipids and proteins. Phospholipids are produced from triglycerides, however within the structure one of the fatty acid chains is replaced with a phosphate group. There are other atoms which are attached to the phosphate. As the phosphate group is negativity charged, it attracts water. The phospholipids create a layer within the cell in order to control the entrance and exits of molecules. This phospholipid layer gives a fluid like structure. the partially permeable membrane of the bilayer determines by the distribution of proteins and phospholipids.

The interior of the cell is primarily made of water. Likewise, the exterior of the cell is usually surrounded by watery fluid. This means that the plasma membrane could not possibly consist of just one layer of phospholipids. This is because the hydrophobic (or water fearing) tail region would have to interact with one of the watery regions inside or outside of the cell. So instead, the cells have evolved to have two layers of phospholipids.



Reference list
. 2016. . [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.3dmoleculardesigns.com/Teacher-Resources/Enzymes-in-Action-Kit.htm.
BBC - GCSE Bitesize: Denaturing of enzymes. 2016. BBC - GCSE Bitesize: Denaturing of enzymes. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_edexcel/cells/enzymesrev3.shtml.

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Your Study pal,
Xo.

             

Biochemistry M3. Use your experimental results to explain why enzymes are active over a relatively narrow range of temperature and pH. Explain why the rate of enzyme activity eventually reaches a limit as the substrate concentration increases.

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Just another essay for you all.

Enzymes perform as catalysts which are in charge of the rate of biochemical reactions. Each enzyme has an active site. This is when the enzyme and the substrate combine for a short period of time to create an enzyme substrate complex. The lock and key theory is in place to describe that the shape of the active site shares similarities to the substrate, which means when they meet they connect perfectly together. Enzymes have a narrow range of pH and temperature and this is due to the fact that they can be destroyed at extreme levels.

Within the experiment that I carried out, observing the effect of temperature on the enzyme amylase it was clear there was a connection between temperature and the time that it took for the enzyme to finish breaking down the starch. Between the temperatures 22°C and 50°C, the time changes decreased from 9 seconds to 2 seconds. Due to the temperature increases, this means that kinetic energy also increases which then increases the chances of enzyme and substrate colliding which also means that the rate of the reaction is quite fast. This is shown within the graph which represents the time taken for the starch to be broken down at 55°C was 7 seconds. This was because of the enzyme in this reaction becoming denatured due to the temperature being so high. This is because the hydrogen bonds holding the enzyme together are broken, therefore takes longer for the enzyme to function.

pH levels can also impact enzyme activity. When the pH is increased, the amount of enzyme substrate complex will also be increased until the peak pH is discovered. The peak pH level of an enzyme is 7. The bonds that hold the enzyme can be denatured. This is due to the breaking which decreases the rate of reaction as the enzyme no longer functions.

The second experiment I carried out shows the rate of enzyme activity reaches a limit while the substrate concentration rises. The percentage of hydrogen peroxide is increased; this had an effect on the way that the substrate concentration affected the capability of the enzyme catalase and increased the rate of the reaction. This is shown within the results of the graph as the increased rate of the reactions is steady. When the rare if the reactions increase, this is caused by the increase of substrates within the solution, the chances of the enzyme and the substrate colliding in the active site are high. The rate of the reaction will eventually get to a stage where it will decrease due to the tolerance levels. The enzymes are no longer able to react any faster.

Again guys please let me know any thoughts! 

Your Study pal,

xo.

Biochemistry P6. Describe the suspected causes, diagnosis, effects (signs and symptoms) and usual treatments of either diabetes mellitus or under/overactive thyroid. Of any of the inborn errors of metabolism listed. For D2 provide the information above for both diabetes mellitus and under/overactive thyroid and all of the 4 inborn errors of metabolism listed. Provide details of the role of the relevant enzymes for all 4 of these errors.

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Another day another essay. Let me know your thoughts!

Our metabolism is in charge of the breakdown of foods which contain proteins, carbohydrates and fats in our bodies changing them into sugar and acid in order to create energy. Some people may experience problems which are known as metabolic disorders which disrupts this process and causing the body to lack or to produce too much of a particular substance.

Metabolic disorders can be developed when the liver or pancreases fails to function properly due to a disease. Examples of these disorders are diabetes, hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism.

Diabetes is a lifelong condition which causes an individual’s blood glucose levels to become so high that they are unable to be controlled the homeostatic mechanisms within our body. There are two types of diabetes, ‘type 1 diabetes’ and ‘type 2 diabetes’. Type 1 diabetes is caused by the immune system destroying the cells in the pancreas that make insulin. This causes diabetes by leaving the body without enough insulin to function normally (autoimmune reaction). There is no specific cause of this but some triggers could be viral/bacterial infection, chemical toxins in food or an unidentified component causing the autoimmune reaction. Type 2 diabetes is caused by different factors such as family history, diet and obesity. Symptoms of both types of diabetes are the same however type 1 diabetes may take only weeks to develop whereas type 2 diabetes may take years to develop and diagnosis. The main symptoms are fatigue, blurred vision, cuts/wounds healing slow, weight loss, urinating more than usual etc. Type 1 diabetes and type 2 diabetes is diagnosed by a range of tests for instance, urine/blood tests, glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) test. Type 1 diabetes can also be tested by antibody tests and type 2 diabetes can be tested by glucose tolerance test (GTT). There is no cure for diabetes but there is treatment and medication to maintain the health of those who suffer from the condition. Treatment for diabetes includes diet control, exercise, home blood glucose testing, and in some cases, oral medication and/or insulin. Approximately 40% of people with type 2 diabetes require insulin injections. Diabetes does not only cause impairment in the metabolism of sugars but is also associated with abnormal metabolism of fats and proteins. Therefore, all three key enzymes lipase, protease and amylase are vital in managing diabetes because they will help digest all three groups of nutrients: proteins, fats and sugars.
Hypothyroidism or also known as an underactive thyroid is where there isn’t enough of the hormones being produced. The main reason for an underactive thyroid is due to the immune system attacking the thyroid gland and damaging it or damage as a result of thyroids cancer or an overactive thyroid. Symptoms for an underactive thyroid may take time and the condition may not be diagnosed for many years. Some of these symptoms include fatigue, constipation, depression etc. In order to diagnose this condition, tests would be run for instance thyroid function tests. An underactive thyroid is usually treated by taking daily hormone replacement tablets called levothyroxine.
Hyperthyroidism or also known as an overactive thyroid is when there is too much of the hormones being produced in the body. There are several possible underlying causes, the most common being ‘Graves’ disease’, in which the body's immune system targets the thyroid gland and causes it to produce too much of the thyroid hormones. there are many symptoms resulting from this condition such as nervousness/anxiety, unexplained weight loss, swelling of thyroid gland (found in throat). In order to diagnose this condition, tests would be run for instance thyroid function tests. The treatment given for an overactive thyroid is called thionamides which stops the thyroid gland producing so much.

Metabolic disorders are caused by a genetic abnormality in which a specific enzyme is missing. This missing enzyme can result in serious harm and can also be harmless at the same time. This depends on the disorder however.
Galactosemia is an inherited disorder which causes babies within their first few weeks to lose their appetite. It’s possible they would suffer from vomiting, become jaundiced and have growth abnormalities. This is caused due to the high level if the monosaccharide galactose within the blood. The galactose 1-phosphate uridyl transferase is the enzyme in which are necessary for metabolising galactose and the lack of this caused the disorder to occur. The liver would also enlarge and within the urine, amino acids and proteins are now present. If a child with this condition doesn’t receive medical attention/treatment on time, this could lead to further develops such as within the cataracts galactose plays a role in the clear lens proteins. Other complications of this disease include brain damage, kidney damage and spleen damage. The diagnosis of Galactosemia is concluded when galactose and galactose 1-phosphate are identified within the urine. This is then further analysed and confirmed when the relevant enzyme is not present within the blood and the liver cells. It is vital that if there is a history of this condition within an individual’s family, that they and their family members be tested as soon as they are born. If a person does suffer from this condition, it’s important they don’t consume dairy products such as milk. This is due to galactose present within lactose which is found is dairy products. If a woman is pregnant and is aware that this condition runs in the family and as the baby could possibly have the condition, the pregnant woman cannot eat dairy products throughout the duration of her pregnancy.

Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an amino metabolism disorder and is a rare genetic condition. The body is unable to break down a substance called phenylalanine. This results in building up in the blood and brain. High levels of phenylalanine can damage the brain and could lead to brain damage. The symptoms of this condition are learning disabilities, behaviour problems and epilepsy.  There are different methods of diagnosing this condition. One is done by the heel prick test which is carried out during the first few weeks of a baby’s life. This test checks for range of conditions. If the illness is confirmed by the heel prick test, another test would be carried out which would determine the high phenylalanine levels then the individual would be referred to health professionals to specialise in treating for the disease.  To treat this disease, most people will suffer severe learning difficulties and would need care for the rest of their lives. The main treatment is to eat a low-protein diet such as potatoes and avoid high protein foods such as dairy products, meat etc. As these individuals wouldn’t be getting the nutrients from these foods, they would have to take amino acid supplements to ensure normal growth. Phenylalanine is usually broken down by the body by an enzyme known as phenylalanine hydroxylase however people who suffer from PKU are not able to do so because of an alternation in their DNA. This then causes phenylalanine levels in the blood to rise.
Glycogen storage disorders are a group of inherited diseases that result from the lack of one of the enzymes that are involved when changing glucose to glycogen or the breakdown of glycogen to glucose. There is over 12 different types of these disorders due to the number of different enzymes involved within the production of glycogen. Each of these disorders has different malfunctions which are low muscle tone, hypoglycemia (low blood sugar), heat intolerance etc.  The condition is diagnosed through a range of tests and if this condition runs through an individual’s family, they would be tested after they are born.  There would be blood tests carried out to test sugar levels and liver/kidney function and there would be scans such as an abdominal ultrasound scans. The treatment for these disorders all depends on as different types requires different treatment. With the majority of them, the treatments goal is to stablise blood sugar/energy levels. Individuals with these disorders would be put on a high protein diet. People who suffer from these diseases would be prone to having a low immune system and therefore would regularly take antibiotic medication to protect themselves from infections. If there is an enzyme lack in the production of glycogen, this can decrease the amount of normal glycogen produce. Low levels of glucose in the body (hypoglycemia) and a buildup of glycogen within the muscles and liver can be a result of problems in regards to the enzymes involved with the breakdown of glycogen into glucose.
Fructose intolerance is a disorder which is the result of the lack of protein needed for the breakdown of fructose, fructose is a sugar which is produced normally within the body. This disease can be inherited. The cause as well as inherited It may be somewhat self-imposed by our modern sugar-heavy diets. Humans have not yet evolved systems to cope with such high sugar consumption that is present within our society such as within in soft drinks, confectionery, desserts etc.  The symptoms for this condition includes fatigue, malabsorption issues (anemia), gastro-intestinal distress (bloating) etc. The diagnosis for this condition is carried out by either a H2 breath test, however this method is seen nowadays as non-reliable so a new alternative method of testing for the condition is done by using stool analysis. A Fructose-free or low-sugar diet is the best treatment. This is easy if you know which foods contain fructose - but many processed foods include fructose so foods such as this should be avoided. The enzyme responsible for this produce is known as aldolase B which is produced in the liver. This condition occurs when this enzyme is missing. Aldolase B is responsible for the second step in the metabolism of fructose, which breaks down the molecule fructose-1-phosphate into glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone phosphate. To a lesser degree, aldolase B is also involved in the breakdown of the simple sugar glucose.

Reference list

NHSChoices Home Page. 2016. NHSChoices Home Page. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.nhs.uk/pages/home.aspx.

Patient. 2016. Glycogen Storage Disorders. Inborn errors of metabolism | Patient. [ONLINE] Available at: http://patient.info/health/glycogen-storage-disorders-leaflet.

WebMD. 2016. Diagnosis of Diabetes. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.webmd.com/diabetes/guide/diagnosis-diabetes.

Your Study pal,
Xo.

P5 Biochemistry For any 2 of the 3 enzyme experiments that you performed: Describe how the experimental results were obtained (method), Provide a suitable table and graph for your results, ⦁ Explain what each graph shows regarding enzyme activity.

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Heres another to enjoy,

The first experiment was to show how the temperature affects the activity of the amylase. The method in which we used to gain these results is:

• Measure the room temperature with a new thermometer and use a pen to name the beakers 1 and 2. Divide 10 test tubes into 2 groups and name then 1-5 in each group. Stopwatches are required to record the time in which the blue/black colour disappears.

•  Crushed ice is then added to beaker 1 and I must be filled with tape water. Beaker 2 is filled up with tap water. A thermometer is placed in each beaker and we left it for a few minutes. Once the temperatures reached the reaction temperature the experiment begins. 3cm³ of amylase must be added into a 10cm³ measuring cylinder, add more drops or pour away drops until it reaches the 3cm³ marks and then pour the solution into beakers 1-5. Repeat the step to the starch solutions and pour then into beakers 1-5 in the second group. 
•  Test tubes 1 from each group must be put into beaker 1. Test tubes 2 from both groups must be put into a water bath of 40°C. 
• The temperature of each of the solutions must be checked every 30 seconds using thermometers to determine the current temperatures of the solution. 
•  If the two types of solution in one container have already reached the reaction temperature, then up and start the corresponding stopwatch as fast as you can. Add a drop of iodine solution immediately into the mixture of amylase solution and starch solution. 
•  The colour then must be checked. When the blue/black colour disappears then the time must be recorded.

At this point add a table to show the results of the experiment on how temperature effects the activity of amylase.

For e.g. 

c         Time in minutes

20°C 9

30°C 6

40°C 5

45°C 4

50°C 2

55°C 7

The technique to test how the concentration of hydrogen peroxide affects the rate of the reaction is as follows:

⦁ Add 2cm³ of yeast into one test tube and in another test tube, add 4cm³ of hydrogen peroxide solution at a concentration of 20% into the other tube. A pipette is used in order to measure the volumes. It’s important to note that the measurements are accurate to ensure a fair test. 

⦁ The hydrogen peroxide solution is then poured into the test tube which contains the yeast. Then the gas syringe stopper is put at the end of the test tube and the stopwatch is then started. 

⦁ The experiment bubbles at this point will then rise up the tube and the gas syringe will move outwards. When this passes the 30cm³ marks, the stopwatch must be stopped and the time must be recorded. 

⦁ The test must be recorded at least three times so an average is obtained. Once the time is taken is found, the rate can be worked out by using this formula: rate= 1000/time in secs.

You now might want to add a table to show the effect of substrate concentration on enzyme activity (catalase)

% Hydrogen Peroxide Time in secs Rate

10%                          286                  3.5

20%                                 182                  5.5

30%                                 160                  6.3

40%                                 139                  7.2

50%                                 130                  7.7

60%                                 120                  8.3

70%                                 110                  9.1

80%                                 100                  10

90%                                 104                  9.6

100%                         96                  10.4

Anything you wanna see here just ask!!

All comments welcome. 

Your study pal

xo

Biochemistry P4 describe the process of anaerobic respiration and use it to describe the type of respiration that occurs during a short sprint and during a marathon

Hi everyone! Back again with a few more essays for you. This is just a short one that covers a pass! Respiration is a series of reactions where glucose releases energy. There are two types of respiration: -Aerobic respiration (needs oxygen) -Anaerobic respiration (doesn’t need oxygen) When we exercise, our body heats up we breathe faster and our heart rate increases. Therefore, during a marathon aerobic respiration would occur. The formula for aerobic respiration is: Glucose + Oxygen Carbon Dioxide + Water (+energy) During exercise, the muscles tend to respire more than what they would when they are resting. The result of this is having the need oxygen and glucose more quickly; therefore the removal of waste carbon dioxide must happen quickly. This action is done by the heart rate and breathing rate increasing. When the heart rate rises, the rate of blood flow likewise increases. This results in the rate of gaseous exchange to increase in the lungs. The muscles support to store the glucose in the form of glycogen to allow it to be used as glucose during the period of exercise. It’s essential within this process that respiration and breathing are not the same. Respiration releases the energy and breathing means to release air in and out of the lungs. During exercise, it is also possible not to obtain oxygen. Anaerobic respiration occurs in this case, such as during a short sprint. Anaerobic respiration is the incomplete breakdown of glucose as it releases about 5% of the energy which is released by aerobic respiration. The waste product in this form of respiration is lactic acid, not carbon dioxide and water. Anaerobic respiration uses this formula: Glucose Lactic Acid (+little energy) When the height of the intense exercising is taking place, the heart cannot provide enough oxygen to the muscles. As lactic acid builds up from the anaerobic respiration, this causes the muscles to tire out due to long periods of exercise which is known as muscle fatigue. This results in the muscles stopping to contract effectively in order to allow the other person to exercise. Due to the breakdown of glucose being incomplete, this means that little energy is released during this form of respiration compare to aerobic. Anaerobic respiration produces oxygen debt. This is the amount of oxygen required to oxidise lactic acid to carbon dioxide and water. Due to oxygen debt, this explains why we breathe heavily after a period of exercise. As we breathe/pant after exercise, this provides the oxygen needed in order to break down the lactic acid. Reference list BBC Bitesize - GCSE Biology - Aerobic and anaerobic respiration - Revision 1. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/education/guides/zm6rd2p/revision. Look out for more to come ! your study pal Xo

physiological disorders P1, P2, P3, M1 , 2 named, signs and symptoms explain, investigations described and difficulties of diagnosing assessed!!

Hey everyone. I know its summer but I am going to start posting a few more written pieces and i hope you enjoy!! Individuals can be affected by a number of different physiological disorders. The two disorders in which I will talk about are Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disorder (COPD) and also Cerebral Vascular Accident (CVA) or stroke. COPD is the umbrella term for a number of lung diseases which include emphysema, chronic bronchitis and also chronic obstructive airways disease. One of the most common causes of COPD is smoking. The more an individual smokes and the longer they smoke increases the chances of developing COPD. This is due to the fact that it both irritates and inflames the lungs, resulting in scarring. This inflammation causes the lung to undergo changes over a period of time (NHS, 2016). Some of the changes include an increase in the production of mucus, thickening of the walls of the airways, damage to the air sac walls which leads to emphysema. The lungs will also lose their elasticity (NHS, 2016). When inhaling, oxygen goes into the bronchus. The bronchus then branches of into a large number of bronchioles having alveoli at the ends (Healthline, 2016). These alveoli stretch, filling with air and when you exhale, they shrink again. There are capillaries present within the walls of the alveoli. When inhaling the oxygen passes into these capillaries and is carried throughout the blood stream. As well as this, carbon dioxide will pass out of the capillaries when exhaling (Healthline, 2016). Healthline, 2016 Healthline, 2016 Individuals who have COPD may find it more difficult to breath. This is due to there being a reduction in the air flow in and out of the lungs (ALA, 2016). This occurs when there is inflammation within the airways and they have thickened. Both the alveoli and also the airways will lose elasticity meaning that it makes it difficult for the air sacs to return to the correct shape (ALA, 2016). This in turn makes it difficult to carry out the gas exchange process. Usually the alveoli are stretchy allowing them to fill with oxygen in which we breathe. The alveoli are then able to deflate releasing carbon dioxide back out into the atmosphere. Due to the reduction of air flow into and out of the lungs, it means that they body and its tissues will be receiving less oxygen and will be proven difficult to excrete carbon dioxide (ALA, 2016). This will then result in the individual having shortness of breath. The alveoli in individuals with COPD will become larger, however, less in numbers (Peter Crosta, 2013). This is due to their walls being damaged which leads to a reduction in surface area. In normal lungs there is a large surface area, including a larger number of alveoli, to increase the efficiency of which the process of gas exchange can occur (Peter Crosta, 2013). There will be an excess amount of mucus produced, narrowing the airways, which will obstruct them, causing a cough to develop and leading to the individual producing phlegm (ALA, 2016). The cough can often be one of the first symptoms that develop and can become persistent overtime. This differs to the normal airways as the mucus doesn’t clog them up and so the airways will remain the original size. The individual may experience chest pains also. In the image to the right we are able to see that there has been a change in colour from the normal lung and the one which has COPD. Hethertonillustration, 2016. The symptoms that are displayed when an individual has COPD may be similar to other medical conditions. Asthma is one example of a disease which affects an individual’s airways and their ability to carry out the gaseous process (Peter Crosta, 2013). The walls of the airways are sensitive and inflamed causing the airways to become narrow meaning that less air is able to travel through them. When an individual’s airways become irritated they may react in three ways. The airways can narrow due the muscles which surround the walls of the airways tighten (Asthma UK, 2015). Phlegm can aid to the narrowing of the airways as it may build up. The lining of the airways may start to swell due to inflammation (Asthma UK, 2015). Due to the reactions it can make it difficult for the individual to breathe, causing them to be breathlessness and will also cause coughing. Another illness that has similar symptoms to COPD is lung cancer. Within the early stages of lung cancer there may be no symptoms present, however, these may develop gradually. The symptoms include those such as a mucus cough. This occurs due to the throat being irritated, therefore by coughing it tries to expel this irritant (Healthline, 2016). The individual may cause a shortness of breath. This could be caused by a build-up of fluid known as pleural effusion in the lungs (Healthline, 2016). Chest pain is another symptom with may develop in lung cancer. Chest infections are very common and have similar symptoms to those of COPD. A chest infection occurs when either the lungs or airways become infected (NHS, 2014). The symptoms of a chest infection include a thick mucus cough, breathlessness and also a feeling that the chest is tight causing chest pains (NHS, 2014). Furthermore, tuberculosis (TB) is another illness with similar symptoms to COPD. It is a bacterial infection which is transmitted through breathing in droplets that have come from the infected individual if they cough or sneeze. The bacterium in which TB is caused is known as Mycobacterium tuberculosis (NHS, 2014). Usually TB affects the lungs, however it can affect different areas of the body such as the bones, the glands and the nervous system. The symptoms in which are similar to that of COPD is the cough and quite often bringing up phlegm (NHS, 2014) There are different tests which can be carried out to differentiate between COPD and the other illnesses. Firstly a spirometry test will be carried out (NHS, 2014). The individual will have to breathe into a spirometer which then measures the volume of oxygen exhaled in one second. There will be a comparison of results to that of normal measurements. If there is an obstruction they will also recognise this (NHS, 2014). Blood tests and also x-rays can be carried out in order to rule out both lung cancer and also anaemia. A computerised tomography (CT) scan or CAT scan can be carried out. CT scans are able to produced detailed images of different structures contained within the body (NHS, 2014). This scan therefore will be able to show how the lungs have been affected by COPD and also the severity of this (NHS, 2014) A stroke is the result of when the blood supply within the brain is interrupted (NHS, 2014). It may also be caused due to a blood clot within the artery that carries the blood to the brain, meaning that oxygen is unable to reach the cells in this area. Due to this, it can result in the brain cells to be damaged (NICHS, 2016). Ischaemic and haemorrhagic are the two main causes of stroke. Ischaemic stroke is when the blood supply is stopped by a clot and haemorrhagic stroke is when there is a weakened blood vessel which bursts. A stroke can result in a number of changes such as the fine and gross motor skills of the individual can be affected, it may result in the individual being paralysed on one side further leading to impaired vision and memory loss (SA, 2012). The symptoms of a stroke can be remembered with the acronym F.A.S.T. This stands for face, arms, speech and time. The individuals face may dropped on one side including their mouth and eye (NHS, 2014). They may not be able to life their arms in the air and keep them there due to a weakness or a numb sensation in one arm. The speech can become slurred and they may not be able to talk (NHS, 2014). If this occurs then it is time to phone for an ambulance straight away. When a stroke is experience, the individual may develop a serve headache There are a number of illness or conditions that may have similar symptoms as a stroke. One of these is diabetes. This is a condition causing an individual’s blood sugar levels to increase (NHS, 2014). There are two types of diabetes including type 1 and type 2. There are a various amount of symptoms regarding diabetes. The individual may develop blurred or impaired vision and headaches just like that of a stroke (NHS, 2014). Furthermore, head injuries may pose similar symptoms to that of a stroke. If an individual has a head injury they must seek medical advice straight away due to the high risk of brain damage. When an individual experiences a head injury it may cause symptoms such as burred or impaired vision, serve headaches and also a numbness or tingling feeling throughout their body (NHS, 2014). Brain tumours is when the cells contained within the brain multiply in an uncontrollable manner. They can either be malignant or benign. The symptoms of brain tumours can be similar to that of strokes. These symptoms include those such as a numb sensation, blurred or impaired vision and also headaches (NHS, 2015). Dementia is another illness or condition which may have similar symptoms to that of a stroke. Dementia occurs when there has been damage to the brain (AS, 2016). The most common type of dementia is Alzheimer’s. The symptoms of an individual with dementia include disorientation, difficulty speaking and memory loss. These symptoms can be confused with a stroke. When the individual has been sent to hospital, they will do blood tests determining cholesterol and blood sugar levels (NHS, 2014). They will also take the individuals blood pressure and check the pulse in case of an irregular heartbeat. Further testing will then be done including CT Scans and also MRI’s. A CT scan will allow for a detailed, 3D image to be seen (NHS, 2014). This makes it easier to identify problems with any of the areas in the brain. A dye may have to be injected into the veins of the individual, allowing them to identify whether it was an ischaemic or haemorrhagic stroke (NHS, 2014). The MRI scan also provides a detailed image of the brain tissue using magnetic fields and radio waves. In conclusion, there are many illnesses and conditions which can be found to be similar and so to determine which illness it is, tests should always be carried out. I hope you enjoyed this written piece and look out for the next one coming!! Your study pal! Xo

SOCIOLOGY! Explain the differences between the two models and assess the strengths and weaknesses for each

There are a number of differences between the biomedical and the socio-medical model. The biomedical model focuses on health as being just the absence of disease. This means that it looks at the physical functioning of an individual and ill-health is described as being presence of an illness diagnosed through signs and symptoms from an injury, meaning environmental factors are ignored. The socio-medical model differs however as it focuses on social factors which contribute to the health and well-being of an individual within society. They highlight that environmental and social conditions are contributors of illness/disease and so instead of an individual approach; it focusses on communities and populations in order to promote health. The socio-medical model links easily with the conflict theorists as they believe that short life expectancy and higher morbidity rates among less fortunate individuals are due to the inequalities of the society (Billingham et al 2007). However, the biomedical model links easily with the functionalist perspective as illness is regarded as being dysfunctional for society (Billingham et al 2007). Regarding both models there are strengths and weaknesses. There are a number of advantages to the biomedical model. This model focuses on curing an individual’s illness/disease. Due to this some illness that used to be very fatal can now be cured e.g. some cancers. This is therefore a result of the development of successful treatments due to research being carried out. Health professionals have been well trained and have reliable information/knowledge regarding illness and how they can be treated. Due to this individual’s trust the doctors and other health professionals to cure their illness/disease. If the individual’s health improves it then proves that the doctor is professional and effective. This model relies on ojective and measurable observations and so it is said to be enticing. It also means that findings may be more reliable due to it being succinct (Zigmond, 2012). There are, however disadvantages to this model also. Individuals with a condition such as Downs’s syndrome are not focuses on as the biomedical model sees these individuals as not being normal. A doctor may not be interested in helping an individual with this kind of condition as the doctor’s expertise may not benefit the individual’s quality of life. It means that if an individual with downs syndrome and an individual seen as being normal needed heart surgery which was very expensive, the individual with the condition would not get it. This is because the biomedical model would see this as being wasteful as the individual who is seen as being normal may benefit more from the surgery. The biomedical model doesn’t consider social and environmental factors which can cause illness. The model focuses on biological factors and that medicines can cure illness/disease but completely ignores that it may be environmental factors such as damp within housing which could bring about illness/disease (Coward 1989). Doctors quite often don’t see people as an individual but see them as a case meaning that the treatment provided is due to illness/disease and not by the individual themselves. They tend to label individual with illness in groups even though the illness may be different. An example of this may be two individuals who have the same type of cancer however they illustrate different signs and symptoms and respond to treatments differently. The socio-medical model also has advantages. This model doesn’t just try to find a treatment for an illness/disease, it looks at what causes the illness e.g. environment, diet, mind-set. It then aims to treat the cause. It doesn’t focus on the individual itself but a society as a whole. It takes into consider environmental and social factors and how they can impact the population. There is research to back up information making it more reliable. In the late 19th century there was research carried out which confirms that when living conditions were improved in the UK there was an increase in life expectancy and mortality rates decreased (Billingham et al, 2007). This therefore improved health and reinforces that in this case it was environmental and social factors that caused illness/disease. This model believes that too much money is provided to the medical professionals and not enough given to communities in order to help individuals to improve their living standards. This could help to prevent illness/disease, having a healthier society. Like always, there are also disadvantages to this model. It will take more time to solve an individual’s problems as unlike the biomedical model, the socio-medical model treats the cause of the illness and it may take a longer period of time to find the root cause. Trying to motivate the population into choosing a healthier lifestyle may also be very difficult. Persuading smokers to quit smoking and encouraging individuals to eat healthier isn’t always easy. It will also be difficult to measure the effectiveness of this method. Individuals may not always be reliable in the information that the provided and so it would mean the findings therefore would not be reliable as it would not be a true finding. Dont forget to leave a wee comment!! xo