Explain the
concept of homeostasis (P5) Discuss the probable homeostatic responses to
changes in the internal environment during exercise (M2)
Homeostasis
can be defined as the maintenance of a constant internal environment within the
body. Sensors within our body monitor a number of things including breathing, heart
rate, body temperature and also blood sugar levels. These can also be known as
detectors, which send signals to the control centre when there is a change, or
the value has deviated from the norm. This value will then be corrected so that
the norm can be maintained (study.com, 2015).
Negative
feedback is important in homeostasis and it responds when certain conditions
change. This therefore means that receptors and effectors, i.e. muscles or
organs, carry out a reaction so that these conditions can remain. This may also
be explained by saying that a change in variable is detected by the receptor
and the information from this is sent along an afferent pathway to the control
centre. The control centre then sends the information along an efferent pathway
to the effector whereby it either opposes or enhances the stimulus (Bioserv,
2001).
In the
medulla oblongata there are chemoreceptors which are adjacent to the
respiratory centre. These chemoreceptors are sensitive to the changes of arterial
PCO2, PO2 and also pH, and send information to the medulla, determining the
nervous response depending on the changes of the variables (Bioserv, 2001). Nerve
impulses are therefore then sent to the repiratory muscles controlling both the
force and how often it contracts. Furthermore, this changes the rate and depth
of breathing and also ventilation (UWE, 2015). The change in ventilation brings
CO2, O2 and pH back to their norm. Nerve impulses are sent along the phrenic
nerve towards the external intercostal muscles which stimulates muscle
contraction for inspiration. Expiration occurs due to the elastic recoil of the
lungs and chest wall. This nerve firing is what gives us our resting breathing
rate of 12-15 breaths per minute. During exercise, the muscles have to
metabolise faster as they require both more oxygen and nutrients. Due to this,
the heart then pumps the blood harder and faster to keep up this demand, as the
heart is doing more work to supply this blood. This means that more oxygen is
required, meaning, the response given is breathing being increased so that
oxygen is pumped to all cells quicker. Due to homeostasis, levels of oxygen in
the blood are always being measured, ensuring oxygen, carbon dioxide and also
pH levels return to their norm. Messages that are sent to the effectors informing
them that the breathing rate has to be increased, however, will decrease again
when all activity has been stopped.
Homeostasis
also controls heart rate. The medulla which is located within the brain also
controls heart rate. It sends information or messages normally in form of
chemicals/hormones. When we are carrying out exercise the heart has to supply
oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. There is information sent to the
medulla from the muscles via the nervous system. This allows the release of
chemicals, to travel to the sinus node. The sinus node then therefore
stimulates the contractions of the heart, also increasing the force which in
turn, increases heart rate. When you are at rest, or stop exercising, another
message is sent to the medulla, which in turn releases acetylcholine, slowing
the heart rate. When engaging in more intense exercise, epinephrine and
norepinephrine is released, increasing heart rate to supply more oxygen to the
body.
There are
two pathways known as the autonomic nervous system and the parasympathetic
nervous system. During exercise the sympathetic nervous system is activated and
this increases heart rate and also the force of the contractions due to the
nerve impulses being transmitted to the heart via the sympathetic nervous
system (Cvphysiology, 2013). In comparison the parasympathetic nervous system
decreases heart and rate and therefore it returns back to the norm and this
system is activated when we are resting. The vagal nerve is what reduces heart
rate.
The
sinoatrial node (SA node) acts as the body’s pacemaker. The impulses initiate at
the SA node moving a wave of electrical excitation across the atria, which
respond by contracting. The ventricles are relaxed meaning that more blood is
being pushed into them. The impulses are then passed to the atrioventricular
node (AV node), however, the AV node delays the passage of impulses to the
bundle of His and is then conducted to the purkinje fibres (Campton, 2010). The
ventricle walls will contract from the apex working up, meaning that blood is
ejected from the ventricles efficiently sending blood to the lungs and the rest
of the body (Campton, 2010).
The level of
glucose within the blood is also controlled by homeostasis. The maintenance of
the level of glucose within the blood involves both the pancreas and the liver.
Islets of Langerhans are cells located in the pancreas and these secrete two
hormones known as insulin and glucagon. Blood sugar rises after we have ate a
meal resulting in the stimulation of the pancreas cells, meaning b-cells of
Langerhans are stimulated, releasing more insulin, enabling the sugar uptake by
cells and also the storage of sugar within the liver and muscles. As a result,
blood sugar levels are decreased (Tortora and Anagnostakos, 2003 recited in Nursing
times, 2015). If however, blood glucose levels are low, the body will not be
able to produce the sufficient amount of ATP needed for bodily functions. Alpha
cells in the pancreas are then stimulated releasing glucagon into the blood.
The liver then breaks this down into glucose which is then released into the
blood. Glucose levels in the blood have now risen and there is no need for the
release of glucagon (Bioserv, 2001). During exercise there is a demand for
glucose due to the contraction of the muscles and more energy being required and
so this causes an increased uptake of glucose to working skeletal muscles which
is caused by an increase in the insulin. Normal blood glucose levels however,
can be maintained during exercise by increased glucose production and the
release through the stimulation of the breakdown of glycogen and glucose
synthesis from other substances. This increase allows the maintenance of blood
sugars. When we stop exercising, receptors send information to the liver
telling it to slow down glucose production.
There are
four different ways in which heat can be gained or lost from the body including
radiation, evaporation, convection and conduction. Radiation is when heat from
the body is given off into the atmosphere. Evaporation is when you sweat and
the evaporation from the liquid generates heat, resulting in a cooling effect.
Convection is the process of heat leaving the body via moving air flowing by
the skin. Conduction is the transfer of heat from direct contact with another
object (Beyondcoldwater, 2011)
The main
control centre in the brain that controls body temperature is known as the
thermoregulatory centre. When we exercise, body temperature will increase as
the body is working hard in attempt to be able to have more oxygen in the blood
which then can be delivered to the muscles providing them with energy. Change
within the temperature in the blood is detected by thermoreceptors. There are
also receptors which are in the skin and they detect changes in temperature
within the environment. Homeostasis will occur due to the negative feedback
triggering homeostatic mechanisms. The hypothalamus in the brain detects
signals and sends impulses to both blood vessels and sweat glands. Firstly the
hairs on the skin lie flat as the erector muscles are relaxed. This therefore
increases the process of heat loss by conduction and radiation. Increased
sweating also known as hyperhidrosis is due to the sweat glands releasing a
salty liquid onto the skins surface, taking heat with it. Blood vessels can
also dilate allowing more blood to flow through. The blood flows close to the
body’s surface meaning that there is increased radiation. This is a process
known as vasodilation. Also due to an increased body temperature there will
also be increased sweating, and the need to drink due to thirst. When we become
too cold however, the opposite of this happens and begin to shiver as a
mechanism to rise body temperature. Heat loss will be reduced as the hairs on
the skin stand so that they are able to trap a layer of air, acting as an
insulator.
In
conclusion, homeostasis is important as it maintains the appropriate levels
within our body that our cells need to function properly and it allows us to adapt
to environmental changes. It keeps the body at a norm, however, if conditions
are at the extreme, the negative feedback mechanism will no longer work,
resulting in death, if there is no medical help.
D2
Evaluate the
importance of homeostasis in maintaining the healthy functioning of the body
(D2).
Homeostasis
is maintaining a constant internal balance within the body, which can adjust to
extreme external conditions/factors. Cold blooded organisms for example are
unable to maintain and regulate their internal body temperature, and so when
they become too cold they are slow. Therefore, this means that ectotherms, rely
on external factors such as the sun to regulate their temperature. On the other
hand, warm blooded organisms are able to regulate and maintain their body
temperature by carrying out exercise. Due to homeostasis, both the nervous and
endocrine system will maintain a core body temperature, resulting in shivering
when it is too cold at low temperatures or sweating if the temperature rises.
During exercise, we can maintain body temperature as we sweat to cool down. To
account for this loss in water, there will be a decrease in the production of
urine. ATP is produced from the stores of glucose, therefore breathing becomes
faster which will provide the body with more oxygen and also heart rate will
increase meaning that blood can be pumped around the body at a faster rate.
The body is
able to maintain our temperature, even if we are surrounded by extreme
conditions e.g. a snow storm, or extreme heat, this is due to homeostasis. If
we were in extreme heat, homeostasis would occur to ensure that we survive. The
body would start to sweat and the process of vasodilation would occur, cooling
down the body. The opposite would then happen if we were in a snow storm. The
body would start to shiver, producing heat and also vasoconstriction would
occur, rising body temperature. If however, homeostasis did not occur this
would then start to cause problems as the body would be unable to recognise the
changes within the environment and respond to them appropriately.
If we are in
extremely hot conditions for a long period of time, the enzymes in the body
will start to denature and this in turn results in the body cells dying (ABPI,
2015). This is known as hyperthermia. Due to this homeostatic mechanisms will
stop working and so the hypothalamus can no longer function. If there is an
excessive amount of sweating, too much salt may be lost from the body, making
ions in the blood fall out of balance, leading to cramps in the muscles (ABPI,
2015). This extreme heat can also effect the messages from the brain to both
the nerves and spinal cord slowing them down. Dehydration may also occur,
meaning that the kidneys will hold on to urea and ammonium, however, this can
be dangerous, as these toxins need to be removed (Campton, 2010). The heart may
also start to beat faster as it needs to maintain blood pressure, therefore
blood vessels will dilate (Bradfield, 2001)
On the other
hand, if the body was exposed to extremely cold conditions, homeostasis still
may not work. Hypothermia is define as when the core body temperature drops to
below the norm for bodily functions to be carried out efficiently and so
chances of survival would decrease. Shivering may occur however, this may not
work and so when hypothermia gets more severe it will stop. Heart rate and
breathing rate will decrease and there may also be an incontinence of urine due
to the kidneys having a larger workload which also relates to the blood being
shunted to the major organs (better health channel, 2015). If there was no
action taken to support homeostasis then the body would eventually shut down,
resulting in death.
A continuous
supply of glucose is required by the body to carry out normal metabolism. This
glucose is then converted to ATP. B-cells of Langerhans are stimulated,
releasing insulin into the blood if the blood glucose levels rise, leading to a
decrease in these levels. The opposite then happens if blood glucose levels
fall. The a- cells of Langerhans, releases glucagon into the blood, rising
blood glucose levels. In relation to blood glucose, if there was a homeostatic
imbalance it could result in the development of type 1 diabetes. Type 1
diabetes is when beta cells in the pancreas are destroyed, therefore,
preventing the body from producing enough insulin to regulate blood glucose
levels (Diabetes.co.uk, 2015). This is also known as hyposecretion of insulin.
If blood glucose levels get too low, then hypoglycaemia may occur
(Diabete.co.uk, 2015). Diabetes can also lead to long term complications such
as heart disease, stroke or kidney disease just to name a few. Diabetes is an
example of what may happen if the homeostatic mechanism fails.
Homeostasis
helps to control breathing rate. The respiratory centre and chemoreceptors
regulate the breathing rate by sending information to the medulla. This in turn
increases carbon dioxide levels in the blood, and nerve impulses are then sent
to respiratory muscles. These muscles are then informed that they have to work
harder, ensuring that there is a sufficient supply of oxygen in the blood
(Campton, 2010). If the mechanism happened to fail, oxygen supplies in the
blood would be insufficient, as there the blood would contain an increased
amount of carbon dioxide. This may cause problems as the body needs oxygen for
all body cells to work efficiently carrying out their bodily functions and
without which, the body would shut down.
The medulla
also controls heart rate as well as the sinus node. The sinus node receives
information, responding accordingly, depending on the body’s needs. An example
of this would be if the body isn’t receiving enough oxygen for the muscles to
work efficiently during exercise, meaning the sinus node would then give
instructions for the heart to work faster, pumping the blood around the body
quicker and at a stronger force. If the homeostatic mechanism was not initiated
due to problems with either the medulla or the sinus node, the body would become
oxygen deprived and so would result in a heart attack, resulting in possible
death if the body was to be left in this way for a period of time (Bradfield 2001
In
conclusion, homeostatic mechanisms in the body are vital for survival and
without such mechanism, it may result in heart failure and possibly even death,
highlighting just how important it is.
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